Introduction
Materials and methods
Study design, setting and participants
Data collection
Outcome of interest
Determinant of interest
Confounders
Statistical analysis
Results
Participant characteristics
Smoke Exposure Indicators | Anemia Risk | Hemoglobin level | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Crude PR (95%CI) | Adjusted PR (95%CI) | Crude β(95%CI) | Adjusted β (95%CI) | |
Any Smoke Exposure | ||||
No | 1.00 | 1.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
Yes | 1.01 (0.87–1.17) | 0.98 (0.69–1.40) | -0.35 (-0.85-0.15) | -0.56 (-1.19-0.08) |
Smoke Exposure Indicators at home | ||||
Any smoke exposure at home | ||||
No | 1.00 | 1.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
Yes | 1.01 (0.85–1.21) | 1.03 (0.69–1.53) | 0.43 (-0.17-1.02) | 0.32 (-0.38-1.02) |
Household garbage burning | ||||
No | 1.00 | 1.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
Yes | 1.02 (0.72–1.42) | 1.06 (0.76–1.49) | 0.43 (-0.17- 1.02) | 0.36 (-0.20- 0.92) |
Number of different type of wastes burnt by the household | ||||
0 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
1 or 2 | 1.15 (1.09–1.13) | 1.14 (0.99–1.28) | 0.73 (-0.04- 1.50) | -0.01 (-0.97–0.99) |
3+ | 1.21 (1.00-1.26) | 1.16 (1.01–1.63) | 0.05 (-0.79- 0.90) | -0.14 (-0.77–0.05) |
p-trend | 0.0068 | 0.0082 | ||
Do you burn mosquito coil indoors | ||||
No | 1.00 | 1.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
Yes | 1.04 (0.91–1.99) | 0.98 (0.75–1.28) | 0.09 (-0.37- 0.54) | -0.10 (-0.53-0.34) |
Current cigarette smoker | ||||
Never | 1.00 | 1.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
Yes, almost daily | 0.79 (0.69–0.91) | 0.89 (0.81–0.98) | -1.36 (-2.06- -0.67) | -1.40 (-2.01- -0.79) |
Yes, at least once in a month | 0.63 (0.47–0.84) | 0.94 (0.90–0.99) | -1.30 (-1.94- -0.67) | -1.14 (-1.79- -0.48) |
p-for-trend | 0.0002 | 0.0131 | ||
Exposed to SHS | ||||
Never | 1.00 | 1.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
Yes, almost daily | 0.78 (0.65–0.95) | 0.89 (0.64–1.25) | -0.78 (-1.34–0.23) | -0.77 (-1.30–0.24) |
Yes, at least once in a month | 0.61 (0.42–0.90) | 0.80 (0.41–1.56) | -0.50 (-1.04-0.04) | -0.34 (-0.85-0.17) |
p-for-trend | 0.0054 | 0.5042 | ||
Fuel stacking | ||||
Clean stacking | 1.00 | 1.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
Mixed stacking | 1.31 (1.14–1.49) | 1.27 (1.07–1.50) | -0.09 (-0.65- -0.84) | -0.93 (-1.33- -0.21) |
Dirty stacking | 1.71 (1.30–2.23) | 1.65 (1.19–2.25) | -0.80 (-1.28- -0.32) | -1.04 (-1.60- -0.48) |
p-for-trend | 0.0008 | 0.0062 | ||
Frequency of cooking | ||||
1–2 times in a month | 1.00 | 1.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
1–3 times in a week | 0.89 (0.82–0.96) | 0.92 (0.61–1.38) | -1.49 (-2.17- -0.81) | -1.04 (-1.69- -0.41) |
Almost daily | 0.79 (0.67–0.93) | 0.96 (0.78–1.17) | -1.61 (-2.30–0.92) | -1.38 (-2.03- -0.73) |
p-for-trend | 0.008 | 0.6835 | ||
Average duration of cooking | ||||
≤ 4 h | 1.00 | 1.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
>4 h | 1.09 (0.82–1.45) | 1.35 (0.66–2.76) | 0.71 (-0.52- 1.94) | 1.46 (0.29–2.62) |
Location where cooking was done | ||||
Outdoor, in an open area/under a shed | 1.00 | 1.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
Enclosed space | 0.79 (0.69–0.90) | 0.85 (0.62–1.17) | -1.43 (-1.91- -0.95) | -1.24 (-1.73- -0.75) |
Combined area | 0.89 (0.83–0.95) | 0.92 (0.79–1.08) | 1.09 (0.36–1.83) | 0.55 (-0.20- 1.29) |
p-for-trend | 0.0004 | 0.3123 | ||
Time spent in the kitchen | ||||
At most a quarter of the time | 1.00 | 1.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
Half of duration | 1.03 (0.93–1.14) | 0.95 (0.77–1.17) | -0.69 (-1.36- -0.01) | -0.93 (-1.56- 0.31) |
Whole duration | 1.06 (0.87–1.29) | 0.90 (0.59–1.36) | 0.18 (-0.50- 0.85) | -0.65 (-1.31- 0.01) |
p-for-trend | 0.6091 | |||
Smoke Exposure Indicator in the neighborhood | ||||
Any smoke exposure indicator in the neighbourhood | ||||
No | 1.00 | 1.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
Yes | 0.88 (0.77–1.01) | 0.90 (0.64–1.27) | -0.67 (-1.12- -0.22) | -0.84 (-1.43- -0.25) |
How often do your neighbors openly burnt waste at home? | ||||
Neighbors do not burn garbage | 1.00 | 1.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
Yes, almost daily | 1.21 (1.06–1.39) | 1.23 (1.02–1.60) | -0.26 (-1.12- 0.60) | -0.17 (-0.99- 0.65) |
Yes, at least once in a month | 1.10 (1.03–1.18) | 1.15 (0.99–1.26) | 1.48 (1.01–1.96) | 1.21 (0.74–1.68) |
p-trend | 0.0101 | 0.02071 | ||
Exposed to smoke from a nearby dumpsite/garbage heap? | ||||
Never | 1.00 | 1.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
Yes, almost daily | 0.95 (0.86–1.05) | 0.89 (0.62–1.30) | 0.82 (-0.37- 2.01) | 0.29 (-0.85- 1.43) |
Yes, at least once per month | 0.90 (0.74–1.11) | 0.95 (0.79–1.14) | -0.54 (-1.18- 0.09) | -0.38 (-0.99- 0.22) |
p-for-trend | 0.2999 | 0.5491 | ||
Dwelling close to a major road | ||||
No | 1.00 | 1.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
Yes | 1.14 (0.99–1.30) | 1.08 (0.97–1.40) | -0.67 (-1.12- -0.22) | -0.62 (-1.09- -0.16) |
Smoke Exposure Indicator at work | ||||
Any Exposure to smoke at work | ||||
No | 1.00 | 1.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
Yes | 1.15 (1.00-1.33) | 1.16 (0.76–1.74) | -0.13 (-0.67-0.41) | -0.23 (-0.95-0.50) |
Exposed to smoke | ||||
Never | 1.00 | 1.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
Yes, almost daily | 1.40 (1.05–1.89) | 1.01 (0.71–1.43) | 0.20 (-0.37-0.76) | -0.05 (-0.59-0.49) |
Yes, at least once in a month | 1.19 (1.02–1.37) | 1.02 (0.51–2.06) | 0.53 (-0.04-1.06) | 0.17 (-0.34-0.69) |
p-for-trend | 0.0386 | 0.9536 | ||
Involved in Fish smoking | ||||
No | 1.00 | 1.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
Yes | 1.15 (1.00-1.33) | 1.22 (0.99–1.40) | -0.13 (-0.67- -0.41) | -0.41 (-0.93- -0.12) |
Participant characteristics | n | (%) |
---|---|---|
Age (yrs) | ||
< 30 | 123 | 38.4 |
30–40 | 109 | 34.1 |
41+ | 88 | 27.5 |
Gender | ||
Male | 163 | 50.9 |
Female | 157 | 49.1 |
Marital Status | ||
aSingle | 120 | 37.5 |
Married/cohabiting | 200 | 62.5 |
Ethnicity | ||
Akan | 63 | 19.7 |
Ewe | 27 | 8.4 |
Ga | 202 | 63.1 |
Hausa | 16 | 5.0 |
bOthers | 12 | 3.8 |
Occupation | ||
Manager/Manageress/Professionals | 71 | 22.2 |
Fisheries/petty trade | 156 | 48.8 |
Craftsmanship | 60 | 18.8 |
Unemployed/pensioner/student | 33 | 10.3 |
Highest educational qualification | ||
Never attended | 38 | 11.9 |
Pre-primary/Primary/JHS/SSS | 172 | 53.8 |
Technical professional certificate/diploma | 54 | 16.9 |
Bachelor/Postgraduate | 56 | 17.5 |
Household monthly income (Ghana Cedis) | ||
< 250 | 40 | 12.5 |
250–500 | 81 | 25.3 |
510-1,000 | 64 | 20.0 |
1,100-1,500 | 75 | 23.4 |
1,500-2,000 | 42 | 13.1 |
> 2,000 | 18 | 5.6 |
Body Max Index | ||
Normal Weight | 56 | 17.5 |
Overweight | 118 | 36.9 |
Obese | 146 | 45.6 |
No. of years lived in the current house (yrs) | ||
<5 | 88 | 27.5 |
6–10 | 80 | 25.0 |
11+ | 152 | 47.5 |
No. of people living in a household | ||
< 10 | 77 | 24.1 |
10–20 | 144 | 45.0 |
>20 | 99 | 30.9 |
Main source of drinking water for household | ||
cImproved | 279 | 87.2 |
dUnimproved | 41 | 12.8 |
Household access to a toilet facility | ||
No | 133 | 41.6 |
Yes | 187 | 58.4 |
Type of sanitation facility | ||
eUnimproved | 133 | 41.6 |
fImproved | 187 | 58.4 |
Last time you took anti-helminthic? | ||
Within 3 months | 136 | 42.5 |
More than 3 months ago | 90 | 28.1 |
Over a year | 94 | 29.4 |
RDT for malaria parasite | ||
Negative | 281 | 87.8 |
Positive | 39 | 12.2 |
Prevalence of anemia
Participants characteristics | Hemoglobin status | ||
---|---|---|---|
Total | Anemic | Non-Anemic | |
Age (yrs) | |||
< 30 | 123 (38.44) | 62 (39.49) | 61 (37.42) |
30–40 | 109 (34.06) | 52 (33.12) | 57 (34.97) |
41+ | 88 (27.390) | 43 (27.39) | 45 (27.61) |
Tau b = 0.0093 | |||
Sex | |||
Male | 163 (50.93) | 69 (43.95) | 94 (57.67) |
Female | 157 (49.06) | 88 (56.05) | 69(42.33 |
Somers D= -0.5605 | |||
Marital Status | |||
Single | 120 (37.50 | 49 (31.21) | 71 (43.56) |
Married/cohabiting | 200 (62.50) | 108 (66.26) | 92(56.44) |
Somers D = 0.0800 | |||
Ethnicity | |||
Akan | 63 (19.69) | 32 (20.38) | 31 (19.02) |
Ewe | 27 (8.44) | 13 (8,28) | 14 (8.59) |
Ga | 202 (63.13 | 97 (61.78) | 105(64.42) |
Hausa | 16 (5.00) | 10 (6.37) | 6 (3,68) |
Others | 12 (3.76) | 5 (3.18) | 7 (4.29) |
Somers D = 0.0265 | |||
Highest Educational Qualification | |||
Never attended | 38 (11.9) | 14 (8.92 | 24 (14.72) |
Pre-primary/Primary/JHS/SSS | 172 (53.8) | 90 (57.32) | 82 (50.31) |
Technical professional certificate/diploma | 54 (16.9) | 23 (14.65) | 31 (19.02) |
Bachelor/Postgraduate | 56 (17.5) | 30 (19.11) | 26 (15.95) |
Somers D = 0.0203 | |||
Household Income (In Ghana cedis) | |||
< 250 | 40 (12.50) | 18 (11.46) | 22 (13.50) |
250–500 | 81 (25.31) | 56 (35.57) | 25 (15.34) |
510-1,000 | 64 (20.00) | 22 (14.01) | 42 (25.77) |
1,100-1,500 | 75 (23.44) | 51 () | 24 (14.72) |
1,500-2,000 | 42 (13.13) | 6 (32.48) | 36 (22.09) |
> 2,000 | 18 (5.63) | 4 (2.55) | 14 (8.59) |
Somers D=-0.0064 | |||
Body Max Index | |||
Normal Weight | 56(17.50) | 25 (15.34) | 31 (19.02) |
Over weight | 118 (36.88) | 62 (39.49) | 56 (34.36) |
Obese | 146 (45.63) | 70 (44.59) | 76 (46.63) |
Somers D = 0.0076 | |||
Main Source of drinking water for household | |||
Improved | 279 (87.19) | 139 (88.54) | 140 (85.89) |
Unimproved | 41 (12.81) | 18 (11.46) | 23 (18.11) |
Somers D=-0.0537 | |||
Type of sanitation facility | |||
Unimproved | 133 (41.6) | 47 (29.94) | 86 (52.76) |
Improved | 187 (58.4) | 110 (70.06) | 77 (47.24) |
Somers D=-0.2247 | |||
Last time you took anti-helminthic | |||
Within 3 months | 136 (42.50) | 42 (26.75) | 94 (575.67) |
More than 3 months ago | 90 (28.13) | 62 (39.49) | 28 (17.18) |
Over a year | 94 (29.38 | 53 (33.76) | 41 (25.15) |
Somers D=-0.1655 | |||
RDT for malaria parasite | |||
Negative | 281 (87.81) | 127 (80.89) | 154 (94.48) |
Positive | 39 (12.19) | 30 (19.11) | 9 (5.52) |
Somers D=-0.0880 | |||
Use mosquito spray | |||
Yes | 148 (46.25 | 22 (14.01) | 59 (3620) |
No | 172 (53.75) | 135 (85.99) | 104 (63.80) |
Somers D=-0.1834 |