Background
Methods
Study design and subjects
Data collection tool
Dietary intake
Demographic and socioeconomic status
Anthropometric indices
Physical activity
Quality and quantity of carbohydrate calculation
Validity and reliability of food frequency questionnaire
Statistical analysis
Results
Participant characteristics
Tertiles of carbohydrate quantity (g) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variable | Tertile 1 ≤ 218.7 N = 111 | Tertile 2 > 218.7 < 287.1 N = 109 | Tertile 3 ≥287.1 N = 110 | p value* | |
Quantitative variables/ mean ± SD | |||||
Age (year) Body weight (kg) Height (cm) BMI (kg/m2) MUAC (cm) Physical activity (met/min/week) | 8.73 (1.78) 28.77 (10.72) 132.62 (12.77) 15.89 (3.30) 20.49 (3.1) 143.58 (328.77) | 9.07 (1.76) 34.97 (12.41) 138.09 (13.62) 17.76 (3.49) 22.18 (3.46) 129.33 (257.39) | 9.26 (1.85) 37.74 (14.19) 139.38 (13.45) 18.83 (4.36) 23.26 (4.03) 308.58 (599.12) | 0.085 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.002 | |
Qualitative variables /N (%) | |||||
Grade | 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th | 23 (7%) 26 (7.9%) 20 (6.1%) 12 (3.6%) 15 (4.5%) 15 (4.5%) | 17 (5.2%) 11 (3.3%) 20 (6.1%) 22 (6.4%) 20 (6.1%) 19 (5.8%) | 18 (5.5%) 14 (4.2%) 15 (4.5%) 19 (5.8%) 22 (6.7%) 22 (6.7%) | 0.132 |
Socioeconomic status | Low Medium High | 83 (25.2%) 28 (0.85%) 0 (0.0%) | 54 (16.4%) 54 (16.4%) 1 (0.3%) | 49 (14.8%) 55 (16.7%) 6 (1.8%) | 0.0001 |
Supplement | Yes No | 14 (4.2%) 97 (29.4%) | 18 (5.5%) 91 (27.6%) | 28 (8.5%) 82 (24.8%) | 0.04 |
Parents smoking | Yes No | 9 (2.7%) 102 (30.9%) | 11 (3.3%) 98 (29.7%) | 18 (5.5%) 92 (27.9%) | 0.134 |
Physical activity | Low Medium High | 106 (32.1%) 5 (1.5%) 0 (0.0%) | 103 (31.2%) 6 (1.8%) 0 (0.0%) | 92 (27.9%) 17 (5.2%) 1 (0.3%) | 0.014 |
Fathers’ education | High school Diploma College | 27 (8.2%) 58 (17.6%) 26 (7.9%) | 15 (4.5%) 55 (16.7%) 39 (11.8%) | 17 (5.2%) 49 (14.8%) 44 (13.3%) | 0.046 |
Mothers’ education | High school Diploma College | 24 (7.3%) 65 (19.7%) 22 (6.7%) | 10 (3.0%) 57 (17.3%) 42 (12.7%) | 9 (2.7%) 54 (16.4%) 47 (14.2%) | 0.0001 |
Family member | 4 or less 5 to 7 More than 7 | 70 (21.2%) 39 (11.8%) 2 (0.6%) | 75 (22.7%) 32 (9.7%) 2 (0.6%) | 83 (25.2%) 25 (7.6%) 2 (0.6%) | 0.385 |
Fathers’ occupation | Manager Employee Worker Homemaker Retired Self-employment Others | 3 (0.9%) 24 (7.3%) 18 (5.5%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 63 (19.1%) 3 (0.9%) | 2 (0.6%) 33 (10.0%) 6 (1.8%) 1 (0.3%) 1 (0.3%) 65 (19.7%) 1 (0.3%) | 3 (0.9%) 36 (10.9%) 6 (1.8%) 0 (0.0%) 2 (0.6%) 61 (18.5%) 2 (0.6%) | 0.134 |
Mothers’ occupation | Manager Employee Worker Homemaker Retired Self-employment Others | 0 (0.0%) 10 (3.0%) 1 (0.3%) 92 (27.9%) 0 (0.0%) 6 (1.8%) 1 (0.3%) | 2 (0.6%) 14 (4.2%) 0 (0.0%) 85 (25.8%) 0 (0.0%) 6 (1.8%) 3 (0.9%) | 0 (0.0%) 7 (2.1%) 0 (0.0%) 88 (26.7%) 1 (0.3%) 12 (3.6%) 2 (0.6%) | 0.260 |
Validity and reliability of food frequency questionnaire
FFQ | 3DR4 | Wilcoxon signed rank test (p Value)1 | Correlation coefficient2 | ICC3 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | ||||
Carbohydrate (g) | 262.22(92.28) | 235.75(84.97) | 0.013 | 0.7 | 0.52 |
Protein (g) | 63.42(22.62) | 58.75(20.94) | 0.059 | 0.63 | 0.54 |
Fat (g) | 64.02(25.76) | 60.28(24.58) | 0.136 | 0.61 | 0.51 |
Calcium (mg) | 748.58(335.10) | 696.48(272.37) | 0.434 | 0.54 | 0.59 |
Fe (mg) | 13.65(5.01) | 12.77(4.78) | 0.016 | 0.75 | 0.74 |
Magnesium (mg) | 218.52(76.82) | 201.07(81.82) | 0.013 | 0.65 | 0.60 |
Vitamin C (mg) | 97.48(54.55) | 95.75(62.34) | 0.211 | 0.77 | 0.62 |
Vitamin A (µg) | 777.25(503.65) | 745.43(532.87) | 0.915 | 0.68 | 0.70 |
Vegetables (g) | 170.65(87.34) | 175.79(107.75) | 0.866 | 0.59 | 0.75 |
Fruits (g) | 280.38(155.49) | 284.13(170.27) | 0.135 | 0.68 | 0.65 |
Meat and its products (g) | 89.56(41.06) | 78.41(34.25) | 0.124 | 0.68 | 0.75 |
Dairy products (g) | 394.29(224.29) | 370.29(192.16) | 0.541 | 0.89 | 0.62 |
Dietary intake of participants
Tertiles of carbohydrate quantity | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Variable | Tertile 1 ≤ 218.7 N = 111 | Tertile 2 > 218.7 < 287.1 N = 109 | Tertile 3 ≥287.1 N = 110 | p value* |
Mean ± SD | ||||
Energy (kcal/d) Fiber (g/d) Cholesterol (mg/d) SFA (g/d) MUFA (g/d) PUFA (g/d) | 1202.21 (277.84) 13.61 (0.35) 265.06 (9.25) 23.06 (0.90) 20.08 (0.45) 14.94 (0.42) | 1806.88 (193.05) 14.07 (0.23) 268.38 (6.19) 21.9 (0.60) 19.82 (0.30) 14.08 (0.28) | 2531.12 (460.80) 14.77 (0.37) 251.48 (9.63) 19.66 (0.94) 18.27 (0.47) 12.87 (0.44) | < 0.001 0.195 0.319 0.103 0.027 0.029 |
Vitamin A (µg) Vitamin D (µg) Vitamin E (mg) Vitamin K (mg) Thiamine (mg) Riboflavin (mg) Niacin (mg) Vitamin B5 (mg) Vitamin B6 (mg) Folic acid (µg) Vitamin B12 (µg) Vitamin C (mg) | 589.61 (65.19) 1.12 (0.14) 12.42 (0.40) 173.37 (6.63) 1.61 (0.03) 1.41 (0.04) 16.24 (0.27) 5.06 (0.10) 1.45 (0.05) 218.11 (6.14) 3.29 (0.11) 91.83 (6.02) | 782.61 (43.61) 1.49 (0.09) 11.76 (0.27) 164.09 (4.43) 1.62 (0.02) 1.52 (0.02) 16.07 (0.18) 5.15 (0.07) 1.51 (0.03) 213.64 (4.11) 3.43 (0.07) 93.35 (4.03) | 865.83 (67.83) 1.66 (0.15) 10.98 (0.42) 160.8 (6.90) 1.63 (0.03) 1.52 (0.04) 16.25 (0.28) 4.93 (0.11) 1.51 (0.05) 208.4 (6.39) 3.22 (0.12) 107.25 (6.27) | 0.033 0.075 0.151 0.475 0.908 0.06 0.751 0.210 0.647 0.684 0.198 0.192 |
Calcium (mg) Magnesium (mg) Potassium (mg) Zinc (mg) Fe (mg) Phosphorus (mg) Selenium (mg) | 682.55 (30.37) 214.95 (4.06) 2650.47 (59.5) 8.22 (0.16) 13.22 (0.27) 1055.05 (24.23) 0.108 (0.003) | 767.34 (20.32) 222.01 (2.72) 2841.52 (39.8) 8.31 (0.11) 13.55 (0.18) 1098.76 (16.21) 0.103 (0.002) | 796.60 (31.60) 218.67 (4.23) 2931.81 (61.91) 7.81 (0.17) 14.18 (0.28) 1063.23 (25.21) 0.091 (0.003) | 0.053 0.246 0.016 0.047 0.129 0.130 0.003 |
Grains (g) Fruits (g) Vegetables (g) Meat and its products (g) Beans (g) Nuts and seeds (g) Dairy products (g) Fats (g) Added sugar beverages (g) Chocolate and snacks (g) | 97.15 (6.09) 241.77 (17.05) 270.79 (10.02) 82.55 (3.70) 39.46 (2.08) 16.66 (1.68) 330.89 (25.19) 12.30 (0.53) 69.09 (11.68) 202.73 (18.85) | 113.34 (4.12) 268.15 (11.50) 273.57 (6.70) 80.17 (2.47) 36.47 (1.39) 14.96 (1.12) 411.65 (16.85) 12.81 (0.35) 81.69 (7.81) 210.95 (12.77) | 148.46 (6.33) 331.23 (17.73) 286.74 (10.42) 72.48 (3.85) 33.80 (2.17) 13.07 (1.74) 441.06 (26.21) 11.91 (0.55) 111.89 (12.16) 170.83 (19.69) | < 0.001 0.009 0.579 0.244 0.321 0.499 0.021 0.267 0.098 0.216 |
Anthropometric indices across tertiles of carbohydrate quantity
Tertiles of carbohydrate quantity (g) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variable | Tertile 1 ≤ 218.7 N = 111 | Tertile 2 > 218.7 < 287.1 N = 109 | Tertile 3 ≥287.1 N = 110 | p value* | |
MUAC (cm) | Model 1 Model 2 | 20.49 (3.1) 20.82 (0.29) | 22.18 (3.46) 22.10 (0.28) | 23.26 (4.03) 23.01 (0.29) | < 0.001 < 0.001 |
BAZ | Model 1 Model 2 | -0.49 (1.39) -0.43 (0.13) | 0.38 (1.25) 0.35 (0.13) | 0.67 (1.45) 0.64 (0.13) | < 0.001 < 0.001 |
HAZ | Model 1 Model 2 | 0.23 (1.39) 0.29 (0.11) | 0.75 (1.02) 0.73 (0.11) | 0.78 (1.16) 0.75 (0.11) | 0.001 0.009 |
WAZ | Model 1 Model 2 | -0.22 (1.25) 0.15 (0.91) | 0.47 (1.19) 0.34 (0.93) | -0.65 (14.32) -0.79 (0.97) | 0.682 0.691 |
Anthropometric indices across tertiles of carbohydrate quality
Tertiles of carbohydrate quality | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Tertiles of glycemic load | Tertiles of dietary fiber (g) | ||||||||
Variable | Tertile 1 ≤ 119.94 N = 109 | Tertile 2 > 119.94 < 155.81 N = 111 | Tertile 3 ≥155.81 N = 110 | p value* | Tertile 1 ≤ 11.78 N = 109 | Tertile 2 > 11.78 < 15.62 N = 110 | Tertile 3 ≥15.62 N = 111 | p value* | |
MUAC (cm) | Model 1 Model 2 | 20.52 (3.05) 20.93 (0.29) | 22.30 (3.84) 22.22 (0.28) | 23.08 (3.77) 22.75 (0.29) | < 0.001 < 0.001 | 20.37 (3.00) 20.70 (0.29) | 22.25 (3.35) 22.30 (0.28) | 23.27 (4.14) 22.89 (0.29) | < 0.001 < 0.001 |
BAZ | Model 1 Model 2 | -0.45 (1.39) -0.38 (0.13) | 0.37 (1.33) 0.35 (0.12) | 0.62 (1.42) 0.57 (0.13) | < 0.001 < 0.001 | -0.51 (1.30) -0.44 (0.13) | 0.36 (1.41) 0.34 (0.12) | 0.69 (1.37) 0.63 (0.13) | < 0.001 < 0.001 |
HAZ | Model 1 Model 2 | 0.23 (1.39) 0.29 (0.11) | 0.75 (1.05) 0.75 (0.11) | 0.78 (1.14) 0.72 (0.11) | < 0.001 0.009 | 0.12 (1.27) 0.19 (0.11) | 0.97 (1.14) 0.95 (0.11) | 0.66 (1.11) 0.62 (0.11) | < 0.001 < 0.001 |
WAZ | Model 1 Model 2 | -0.20 (1.26) 0.05 (0.91) | 0.50 (1.29) 0.45 (0.91) | -0.73 (14.40) -0.97 (0.98) | 0.629 0.563 | -0.36 (1.10) -0.082 (0.91) | 0.72 (1.32) 0.65 (0.89) | -0.86 (14.68) -1.11 (1.00) | 0.445 0.429 |
Tertiles of carbohydrate quality | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Tertiles of whole grains/total grains | Tertiles of solid carbohydrates/total carbohydrates | ||||||||
Variable | Tertile 1 ≤0.08 N = 109 | Tertile 2 > 0.08 < 0.17 N = 110 | Tertile 3 ≥0.17 N = 111 | p value* | Tertile 1 ≤ 0.59 N = 105 | Tertile 2 > 0.59 < 0.78 N = 112 | Tertile 3 ≥ 0.78 N = 113 | p value* | |
MUAC (cm) | Model 1 Model 2 | 21.88 (3.86) 21.79 (0.29) | 21.40 (3.65) 21.74 (0.29) | 22.63 (3.57) 22.38 (0.29) | 0.048 0.241 | 22.12 (3.84) 22.37 (0.30) | 22.23 (3.78) 22.09 (0.29) | 21.58 (3.53) 21.49 (0.29) | 0.379 0.101 |
BAZ | Model 1 Model 2 | 0.12 (1.46) 0.11 (0.13) | -0.007 (1.53) 0.04 (0.13) | 0.43 (1.33) 0.39 (0.13) | 0.071 0.162 | 0.44 (1.36) 0.49 (0.13) | 0.17 (1.52) 0.15 (0.13) | -0.04 (1.44) -0.06 (0.13) | 0.046 0.015 |
HAZ | Model 1 Model 2 | 0.47 (1.19) 0.46 (0.11) | 0.62 (1.34) 0.65 (0.11) | 0.66 (1.14) 0.65 (0.11) | 0.492 0.421 | 0.74 (1.12) 0.74 (0.11) | 0.55 (1.28) 0.56 (0.11) | 0.48 (1.26) 0.47 (0.11) | 0.291 0.243 |
WAZ | Model 1 Model 2 | 0.13 (1.33) -0.008 (0.94) | -1.02 (13.28) -1.00 (0.87) | 0.62 (1.31) 0.73 (0.93) | 0.399 0.395 | 0.66 (1.38) 0.62 (0.91) | -1.13 (13.66) -1.02 (0.91) | 0.11 (1.29) 0.03 (0.93) | 0.342 0.442 |