Introduction
Insights from glycolysis in thyroid cancer
Differences in glycolysis between cancer and normal cells
Glucose transport
Pyruvate kinase and pyruvate carboxylase
Lactic acid metabolism
The role of glycolysis in thyroid cancer
Thyroid cell carcinogenesis and tumor formation
Regulators | Effects in glycolysis | Effects in TC growth | Downstream molecules | Participation pathway | Mechanism | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Negative regulators | PTEN | Negative | Negative | HIF-1, VEGF, PCNA | PI3K/PTEN/AKT, PI3K-AKT-mTOR | Inhibit GLUT1 expression and glucose uptake in TC, downregulate PI3K-AKT-mTOR pathway and affect glucose metabolism |
P53 | Negative | Negative | AMPK, GLUT1,3,4, PGM, TSC2, RRAD | PI3K-AKT-mTOR, caspase pathway | Shorten glucose uptake and promote mitochondrial oxidation, so as to resist Warburg effect, which also leads to cell cycle arrest and apoptotic cell death | |
Iodide | Negative | Negative | GLUT1 | Oxidation pathway, rate-limiting glucose-facilitated transport system | Inhibit TSH induced stimulation of glucose transport, reduce the number of available carrier sites and inhibit cell growth | |
BRAFV600E | Negative | Negative | GLUT1 | RAF/MEK/ERK | Initiate the glycolytic table associated with GLUT1 overexpression and inhibit mitochondrial respiration in thyroid cells | |
Positive regulators | HIF-1 | Positive | Positive | GLUT1, PDK, PKM2, HKII | PI3K/AKT | Enhance glycolysis, increase GLUTs expression, and promote tumor growth |
PI3K/AKT | Positive | Positive | GLUT1, HKII, PDK1 | PI3K/AKT | Promote cell carcinogenesis and increase glycolytic flux | |
TSH | Positive | Positive | mTOR | PI3K.AKT, RAS/MAPK | Promote thymocyte proliferation and thyroid proliferation | |
c-Myc | Positive | Positive | GLUT1, LDHA, PK, PKM2, MCTs | APC, miR-222-3p/HIPK2/ERK | Promote anaerobic glycolysis, tumor growth and cell proliferation | |
AMPK | Positive | Negative | HIF-1α, mTOR | AMPK/AKT, AMPT/mTOR | Regulate glycolysis and control cell growth, apoptosis and survival | |
LDHA | Positive | Positive | STAT3 | JAK/STAT | Promote the conversion of pyruvate to lactic acid, so as to promote the glycolysis process and tumor growth | |
PD-1 | Positive | Positive | SHP2, RAS | SHP2/RAS/MAPK, RAS-MAPK-ERS | Promote the proliferation and vitality of thyroid cancer cells |
Glycolysis and thyroid cancer microenvironmental acidosis
Glucometabolic reprogramming in metastatic thyroid cancer
Potential clinical value of glycolysis in thyroid cancers
Tools for detecting thyroid glycolysis
Method | Principle | Frequency | Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|---|---|---|
Ultrasonography | Use ultrasound to present the internal image of opaque objects | Always | Detection of residual thyroid cancer in cervical lymph nodes or soft tissue | Unclear imaging, difficult qualitative, inaccurate quantitative |
FNAB | A sterile puncture needle was used to puncture the suspicious part of the nodule, and some nodule components were extracted for cytological and pathological examination | Always | Differential diagnosis between benign and malignant thyroid nodules and diffuse goiter | Too few materials to know whether the blood vessels and capsule are invaded at the same time |
CT | The optical signal is changed into an electrical signal, then into a digital signal, and finally into a computer picture | Always | Preoperative staging, monitoring, re staging, location of metastatic disease and continuous monitoring of progression and treatment response of thyroid cancer | Difficult to find small lesions with little or no density change |
MRI | Based on the low diffusion coefficient of water molecules in high cell tissues | Often | Helpful to detect lymph node involvement and lymph node metastasis before operation | Expensive equipment, long time to image and limited patients |
Radioiodine imaging | TSH stimulates iodine uptake in residual normal and malignant thyroid tissues | Often | Identify, locate and monitor the progress or treatment response of iodine preference metastasis in differentiated thyroid cancer | Needed TSH to stimulate iodine uptake in residual normal and malignant thyroid tissues |
123Ι/131Ι/99mTc Thyroid Scintigraphy | Effective concentration of iodine based on thyroid follicular cells | Often | The only evidence of autonomic functional thyroid nodules | Uncertain to hyper-functional nodules |
FDG-PET | Based on the mutual annihilation of positrons and electrons, two high-energy 511 keV photons are released in the opposite direction | Often | Evaluation of thyroid cancer recurrence and for systemic and focal dosimetry | Limitation for patients with newly discovered thyroid nodules or thyroid diseases were evaluated |