Discussion and conclusion
Four mosquito genera and seven species were collected during entomological surveys carried out in the Adjrako village. The An. gambiae complex was the main malaria vector with 8.7 infected bites per person for the period from September to November. This malaria vector was resistant to deltamethrin.
Seven species collected during the present study are lower than that recorded by Djènontin et al. [
8] in Ouidah-Kpomasse-Tori health zone in southern Benin and Yadouléton et al. [
36] in the District of Corpargo in the North-East of Benin, but is consistent to those recorded by Djègbè et al. [
37] in Lélé, in southern Benin. Although Ouidah-Kpomasse-Tori health zone and the district of Zè are located on the same plateau of Allada, lower species numbers were recorded in the present study. These results could be explained by large surface area of the study conducted by Djènontin et al. [
8]. Indeed, these authors have carried entomological surveys in 28 villages in 3 districts, in contrast with the present study carried out in 1 district. This suggested a probable heterogeneity in mosquitoes distribution on the plateau of Allada. Similarly, this difference observed at the species level with these authors could be related to the identification method used. Only morphological identification with a taxonomic key was used in this study, while other authors had also used molecular method; a more advanced method in the determination of species. In the same, the lower species number could be explained by the relatively short mosquitoes collection period.
Regarding the species richness of the different malaria vectors collected in this study, two potential vectors
An. gambiae s.l. and
An. funestus were collected.
Anopheles gambiae s.l. was the most abundant species of the anopheline fauna and the majority was captured inside the houses, confirming the endophagous nature of this species. The density of
An. gambiae s.l. obtained in this study was very low compared to that obtained by Djègbè et al. [
37]; this low density could be related to the hydro-geographical factors of the study area. The study by Djègbè et al. [
37] was conducted in a rice-growing area. As reported in several studies, rice fields are a favourable environment for the larval development of this species [
38,
39]. The number of
An. funestus vectors caught in this study was very low. This result suggests that breeding sites for this species are rare or scarce in the study area as
An. funestus species prefer shaded sites with vegetative broods [
34]. Although this species has a nocturnal biting behaviour especially in the second part of the night [
40,
41], it could shift its biting time, as was reported by others [
42,
43] who had observed females of this species biting at the beginning of the day. The continuation of the collection of mosquitoes until 09.00 in the morning could give more information on the density of this species.
The high rate of
Culex genus observed in this study could be explained by the abundance of polluted breeding sites that were favourable for the proliferation of
Culex larvae [
44]. These observations corroborate those made by the studies that have shown that mosquito species belonging to the
Culicinae have strong adaptive capacities allowing them to develop in polluted environments [
45,
46]. Similar observations have been made by Koumba et al. [
47], who showed that immature stages of the genus
Culex are found in the larval sites rich in organic matter.
The larval surveys carried out in the context of this study showed that the study area has a diversity of larval sites. The majority of
Anopheles larval sites identified in this study were temporary, unpolluted and sunny puddles sites. This result corroborates those of some authors who have shown that
An. gambiae s.l. females prefer to lay their eggs in sunny water collections devoid of vegetation [
39,
48]. However, the very low number of positive
Anopheles breeding sites identified is probably associated to the heavy rains observed in the study area a few days before the larval surveys. These rains would have washed away several breeding grounds which would be favourable to the development of
Anopheles larvae. The cohabitation of
Anopheles and
Culex larvae in the same breeding site suggests that
Culex is able to survive in both clean and polluted habitats.
Populations of
An. gambiae, the main malaria vector collected in this village, have developed resistance to deltamethrin and possibly resistance to bendiocarb. The results obtained in this study corroborate those of Djègbè et al. [
21]
, who observed deltamethrin resistance in the same district, but with a mortality rate of 86%. The massive and sometimes abusive use over the years of household insecticides, such as aerosol cans, coils and especially the emergence of other insecticidal chemicals used against mosquito bites could certainly have contributed in one way or another to the selection of this resistance. Resistance of
An. gambiae s.l. to deltamethrin had been previously reported in Benin [
19,
20,
37].
The possibly resistance of mosquitoes to bendiocarb observed in our study is believed to be due to the massive use of pesticides in the agricultural environment in the Zè district. Indeed, pineapple cultivation is the most recurrent product in agricultural production in Zè district and farmers often resort to the use of chemicals, such as insecticides, herbicides or fungicides for various reasons [
49‐
51].
Malaria transmission in the study area seems to be carried out mainly by
Anopheles gambiae s.l., the major vector of malaria in Benin [
8,
50,
52,
53]. The qPCR results confirmed that no infected
An. funestus was found, but in view of the low number of
An. funestus collected this may not be conclusive. The infectivity of this vector has been observed in southern Benin by several studies [
8,
54,
55].
Determination of plasmodial infection by qPCR in mosquito heads and thorax showed that 11% of mosquitoes were infected. Seen that PCR-based methods detect
Plasmodium in stages other than sporozoites, sporozoite index observed in the present study could be an overestimate [
56].
The overall EIR for this study was 8.7 infecting bites per person for the period from September to November (corresponding to the short rainy season). The transmission was highest in September which corresponds to the beginning of the short rainy season with EIR 6.1 infecting bites per person and zero in November which marks the end of this season. This suggests that, the population of Zè is much more exposed to
P. falciparum transmission during rainy seasons when mosquitoes are abundant. These results corroborate those obtained in a northern region which showed that transmission is very high in the rainy season than in the dry season [
36]. This information is likely to favour the carriage of
Plasmodium in the Adjrako population especially in the rainy season. Asymptomatic carriage of malaria parasites being common in all malaria-endemic areas [
57], so the village of Adjrako is a very favourable location for the implementation of the study on the infectivity of asymptomatic carriers of
P. falciparum.
This transversal study on entomological parameters provides a data set on malaria transmission in the village of Adjrako in the district of Zè. However, the three months data collection periods corresponding to the short rainy season are insufficient to assess culicidian diversity and malaria transmission in this district. A longitudinal study would be necessary to measure the variability of malaria vectors and the physico-chemical and biological parameters of the larval sites over all seasons of the year. Despite its limits, the data from this study are importance for the study for which it was collected. Indeed, the main vector of malaria in the study area is known and this can orientate the tests to be carried out within the framework of the study on asymptomatic carriers which will be set up.